Literature

King Gesar: The World’s Longest Epic

　　The Life of King Gesar is a heroic epic collectively created by China's Tibetans. Originating in the folk oral traditions passed down among Tibetan generations for some 1,000 years, it has been collected as a work composed of 120-odd volumes, with more than 1 million verses, totalling over 20 million words. It is the longest epic known to the world, and has been called the Orient's Homeric Epic.

The Origins and Significance of the Epic

　　The immortal epic evolved during the transition period between the 3rd and 6th centuries as the Tibetan clan society gave way to the emerging slavery society. The diverse elements of the epic were consolidated after the establishment of the Tubo Kingdom (early 7th-9th centuries). It was further refined and gained wide fame during the shift from a slave society to a feudal society in Tibet from the 10th century to the early 12th century.

　　With resurgence of Buddhism in Tibet around the 11th century, Tibetan monks began participating in efforts to compile and popularize The Life of King Gesar. The basic structure of the epic took shape and the earliest transcripts emerged. The work of consolidating the epic was mainly undertaken by monks of the Nyingma (Red) Sect.

　　Based on such folk literature as fairy tales, legends, poems and proverbs passed on by the Tibetan people, The Life of King Gesar came into being and further developed, representing the leading achievement of ancient Tibetan culture. The epic relates the heroic achievements of Gesar, who lived without fear of his rather formidable enemies, subdued monsters, helped the poor and controlled the strong, and brought benefits to the common people.

　　The epic warmly praises the truth that justice and brightness will be victorious over evil and darkness. It also reflects the important historic stages of national development and basic social structure in Tibet, conveying the good wishes and lofty ideals of the masses and depicting the complicated relationships between China's ethnic groups and the process of final unification. The Life of King Gesar is a great work featuring the study of ancient Tibetan social history, class relations, exchanges between ethnic groups, moral concepts, folk customs, traditions, and culture. Thought of the Oriental Homeric Epic, it is of high academic value.

　　China is home to many nationalities. History has closely united the peoples of the Han and various ethnic groups. Therefore, The Life of King Gesar embodies the great spirit of the Chinese people and their lofty ideal of pursuing justice and a happy life. The evolution and development of the epic are a cultural phenomenon not often seen in Tibetan history, or in histories of China or the rest of the world for that matter.

　　The evolution of the epic spanned a long historical period, encompassing several stages of Tibetan history, including the late primitive society, the dictatorship of the slave owners, the slave society, and the feudal society. The epic continues to meet with widespread fame in the society of today's Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.

　　These important periods in Tibetan social development have greatly influenced the popularization and development of the epic and are reflected directly or indirectly through its words. At the same time, The Life of King Gesar had tremendous effect on Tibetan culture during different periods, resulting in its important position in Tibetan cultural history. No other work comes close to the epic in its ability to reflect the history and cultural development of the ancient Tibetan society. Nor has any other work been able to so thoroughly influence the cultural development of the Tibetans. In this sense, the Life of King Gesar can be thought of as a work of social and literary power.

Plot Briefs

　　The story was set far in the distant past, when the common people of the Tibetan plateau were subjected to natural disasters and calamities across their lands. Demons and spirits run wild. The Goddess of Mercy, in the hope of helping the people, asked the Amitabha Buddha to send the son of the God of Heaven to the world to defeat the evil demons.

　　Toiba Gawa, who later came to be known by the name Gesar, descended to the earth and became the king of the Tibetan people. Able to defeat the demons, aid the poor and benefit the common people, Gesar is portrayed as a combination of god, dragon and a fierce spirit known as nyan in Tibetan primitive religion. He was endowed with special characteristics and marvelous powers and abilities. Gesar suffered several trials. However, his invincible power and the protection of the God of Heaven allowed him to survived and eventually defeat the evil demons.

　　Throughout his life as a human, he worked to rid the common people of the scourges of their existence. At the age of five, he moved with his mother to the banks of the Yellow River. When he was eight, they were joined by the members of the Ling tribe. Winning a horse race against the finest warriors of the tribe at the tender age of 12, he was recognized as the chief of the tribe. He married Sengjam Zholmo. Gesar then led expeditions against the enemies of his tribal kingdom. He defeated the northern demons who had invaded the lands of the Ling Kingdom. In successive campaigns, he defeated King Gurdkar of the Hor Kingdom, King Sadam of the Jang Kingdom, King Shingkhri of Monyul, King Nor of Tangzig, King Chidan of Khachevigyu, King Toigui of the Zugu Kingdom and scores of small tribes and minor kingdoms known as zongs in ancient Tibet. After completing his sacred mission, he returned to heaven together with his mother and wife, bringing to a dramatic close the grand epic of his life.

　　The story's structure touches upon two important periods in Tibetan social development and includes depictions of almost 100 tribes, kingdoms and regions. The epic is generally divided into three parts: the birth of Gesar; the expeditions against the enemies; and his return to heaven. Of the three parts, the depictions of his battles and exploits are the most detailed and contain the most enlightening materials in relation to Tibetan history and culture. The second part includes four parts—Defeating Demons in the North, Battles Between Hor and Ling, Defend the Salt Sea, and Battles Between Mon and Ling--as well as battles to conquer 54 zongs.

　　The Life of King Gesar is recognized as a literary treasure and a heritage of Tibetan art and beauty. Based on the society that gave it birth, the epic sums up important stages in the development of Tibetan history and expresses the lives of the ordinary Tibetan people as well as hundreds of figures. Whether heroes or tyrants, men or women, young or old, the figures make deep impressions with their clearly defined characters and striking images. The heroic figures, led by King Gesar, provide immortal examples of valiant sacrifices.

The portrayal of characters through dialogue, actions, and plot twists is characteristic of the epic. No two figures are identical. For instance, among the heroic figures, King Gesar is portrayed as a leader with a broad and long-term view and a boldness of vision. Manager King is described as a resourceful and kind man. Gyaica is shown through his words and deeds to be a brave man of strong character, while Dainma is described as both intelligent and courageous. The female figures are portrayed more elegantly, with vivid and lively characteristics. For instance, according to Battles Between Hor and Ling, three kings of Hor send armed forces to seize Zholmo, wife of King Gesar. He did so because, when the wife of Hor's King Gurdkar had died, the four birds from Hor who were ordered to find the most beautiful woman in the world, had a cow to bring back the following message:

The beautiful girl is in Ling Kingdom,
Queen Zholmo is resplendent and bright.
Her step forward is worth 100 strong horses,
Her step backward is worth 100 thriving sheep.
She is warmer than the sun in winter,
And cooler than the moon in summer.
She is more fragrant than flowers in bloom,
Surrounded by bees in adulation.
There are many beauties in this world,
But only she is a true match for the king.
King Gesar has gone to the north,
His queen is alone and unprotected.

　　The Life of King Gesar originated from the ordinary society of Tibet and was solidly based on ancient Tibetan literature, especially ancient folk stories. Before the epic was consolidated, Tibetan literature boasted a variety of works, especially folk stories, fairy tales, legends, traditional stories and poems. These were numerous and richly woven. The Life of King Gesar drew much from these previous literary works and carried forward the tradition of outstanding literatures through its plot development, evolution, materials, and forms of expression, as well as in ideology, religion, and customs. Rhetorically, it borrowed a number of Tibetan proverbs, cited in the original or adapted in the epic after polished. For instance:

If seeds are not sown in spring,
No corn will be harvested in autumn
If cows are not fed in winter,
There will be no milk in the spring.
If fine horses are not well bred,
They will not gallop into the face of your enemies.

A white-lip wild horse won't eat chaff,
Even if he is hungry, that is his character.
A wild ox won't drink drainage water,
Even if he is thirsty, that is his character.
A man won't shed tears,
Even if he leads a bitter life, that is his character.

　　The Life of King Gesar has also preserved various traditional words of praise, such as the Ode to Wine, Ode to the Mountains, Ode to Tea, Ode to Horses, Ode to Swords and Knives, Ode to Dress, and Ode to Armor. The famous Ode to Wine speaks of one of the simpler pleasures of life:

The bowl of wine in my hand has a long history.
The sky is blue like jade.
The blue-jade dragon roars in the sky.
The lightning flashes red,
And drizzle falls like sweet dew.
By using the clean sweet dew,
Heavenly nectar can be brewed in the human world.

Crops should be grown first for making wine.
The earth is like a golden basin,
Opening its bounty to the grain.
Crops spring from the golden basin,
And are harvested by the sickle in autumn.
Pien Nieu stand side by side ready to thresh grain,
Farming tools whisper through the air.
Shovels of white poplar winnow the harvest.
Chaff blows on the wind.
The winnowed kernels wait in the silo.
Barns and depots overflow with highland barley.

Everyone rejoices in the highland brew.
Colorful kitchen ranges appear,
Good bronze pots with auspicious knobs stand ready.
White towels clean the sweat from the pot.
Highland barley simmers in clear water
Over a roaring fire.
Spreading highland barley on the felt,
Mixing with essential distiller's yeast.
Four seasons are needed to make the wine for the New Year's Day.
Which is called Sweet Dew.
Wine made in one month is called Cold Sweet Dew.
Wine made in one day is called Whirling Sweet Dew).
......
Officials who drink it,
Will be more broad-minded than the sky.
The timid will become brave
After but one cup.
......
There are many advantages to drinking this wine,
Which our homeland is short of.
It is the imperial wine for kings;
It calms worried souls;
It brings happiness and dancing to common people.
......

　　In addition, The Life of King Gesar is considered a flower basket of folk literature, having drawn many elements from folk songs, fairy tales and stories. On the other hand, it also provided a wealth of material for the later creation of literature and art. Some tunes of folk songs and dances are drawn from The Life of King Gesar, and some songs herald praise for the Gesar couple. In addition, some fairy tales and folk stories have drawn material from The Life of King Gesar, such as The Story of Seven Brothers, which combines the interesting source material about the seven brothers building houses for people with elements from The Life of King Gesar. Numerous unique frescos and sculptures are also based on the plots found in The Life of King Gesar and there are statues enshrined in temples with an image of King Gesar serving as the guardian.

　　The Life of King Gesar combines the styles of prose and verse. Its poetry joins the ancient past with the modern age of Tibetan literary development. It reflects the importance of ideological and rhetorical methods, especially in its poetic rules and forms. For instance:

A fierce tiger with bright stripes
Wandering in the forest shows its power.
But what use are the stripes if no one sees them?
A wild yak relishes its youth,
Climbing Black Rock Mountain, dancing with its horns.
But what use is youth if you fail to dance?
A wild stallion with white lips,
Intending to gallop across the grasslands.
But what use is the white lip if he fails to
gallop?
Tangze, a hero of the Hor Kingdom displays his might.
Facing Ling on the battlefields.
But what use is he if he fails to defeat the dragon?

　　Poems of this style are common in The Life of King Gesar. Not only do they follow a multiple paragraph pattern and a circular style evident in the Tubo period, but also create a new style that uses eight-word stanzas, instead of the former six-word stanzas (in the original Tibetan language). The rules and forms were basically shaped and fixed by the 11th century and have remained unchanged. This form is widely used in Tibetan folk songs, narrative poems, poems in lyrical stories, and Tibetan dramas, as well as in the works of scholars and poets. They have become the most influential and important rules and forms in Tibetan poetry.

　　By using verse, proses, lyrics and narration, the epic combines real stories, myths, poems, fables, proverbs and mottos, making it a collection of Tibetan folk culture.

The Fruit and Wisdom of Folk Artists

　　The popularity and immortality of The Life of King Gesar should be credited to the direct creators, inheritors, popularists and outstanding folk artists responsible for the work. They are real artists and outstanding poets of the masses. During the long days of their lives, generations of folk artists have been busy creating China's great epic through their painstaking efforts. Their works embody the great intelligence and spirit of initiation of the masses. With marvelous wisdom and artistic talent, they have made meritorious contributions to inheriting and developing Tibetan cultural undertakings, which should be remembered and respected by people of the present age and our descendants.

　　During the process of large-scale preservation, almost 100 folk artists are discovered to be active in rural and pastoral areas. Of these, more than 10 are popular among the people. Before presenting performances, they usually hold various forms of ceremonies, such as burning incense and worshiping gods or singing in front of a mirror. They always wear hats with all kinds of bird's feathers as a costume and carry musical instruments made of ox horn or ring tambourines. In August 1984, during the Shoton (Sour Milk Drinking) Festival, Lhasa hosted Gesar artists from seven provinces and municipalities, with 40-odd performers participating in the performances, including noted bard Zhagba and the female bard Yumei.

　　The Tibetan folk bard Zhagba has devoted his entire life to the preservation and performance of The Life of King Gesar. Several hours before he passed away in November 1986, he still assiduously presented songs from The Life of King Gesar. With his passing, the masses inherited a precious piece of cultural heritage. He performed 25 versions of The Life of King Gesar, with a total of 600,000 verses, or 6 million words, in his life time. The figure is equal to 25 Homeric Epics or 15 Ramayanas or three Mahabharatas. It is by far the longest and the most complete set of versions in the world. These versions embody the wisdom and artistic talent of Zhagba and represent an important fruit of the preservation work in the new age.

Unlike other folk artists, the bards don't pass down their legacy from master to apprentice, or from father to son. They believe the skill of performances depends on the inspiration of the gods, not by inheritance or study. They believe the emergence of generations of artists has to do with the reincarnation of a figure related to King Gesar. This is in line with the basic tenets of Buddhist reincarnation and the Lamaist Living Buddhas of the traditional Tibetan culture.

The Birth Place of King Gesar

Where is the State of Ling, described as the home of Gesar in King Gesar, the renowned epic? Some say it covered Dengke, Dege and even the bulk of the Kamba area; others say it was in a Sichuan area drained by the Yellow River, comprising Norgyi, Hongyuan and Aba; yet others favor Qubu in Gansu Province, where people of the Tibetan ethnic group lived in a compact community. Some, however, say Gesar's hometown was in the Golog-Yushu area of Qinghai Province, while others insist the State of Ling should cover the cross-border areas of Qinghai, Sichuan and Gansu Provinces.
   No matter what they say, they find support from these books: Questions and Answers by Sumba Yexei Benjor, a historian of Qinghai Province in the 60s of the 18th century, Natural Area of Dorkam by Ren Naiqiang in 1940, and A Study of King Gesar and Balladeers in Tibet and the Ling Edition of Tibetan King Gesar by R.A.Stein from France. These books agree that the Ling State was located within Aba in Sichuan, which expanded from east to west to Dengke in northern Garze. Its influence was felt even in Qinghai.
   For the study of the birthplace of Gesar, a group of four experts from Qinghai went in the summer of 1999 to Golog and Yushu in Qinghai, and Aba and Garze in Sichuan, where King Gesar is even more popular. The result is that they came to the conclusion that Jisuya in Xiongbaji, Axu Town, Dege County of Garze was the birthplace of Gesar.
Stories Much Told in Jisuya
   The group of four came across the Living Buddha Bagyia with the Chacha Monastery in Dege County on July 19. It is some 20 km from Axu Town. Waiting for a bus, the Living Buddha told them he loved King Gesar very much. When told of their intention, he talked to them with great warmth.
   Axu Town sits across Zha Qu River on the upper reaches of the Yarlung River, and is 207 km away from the county seat. Dotted with fluttering sutra streamers, it is a world of things natural, with many fish swimming in the rivers and lakes.
   According to the Living Buddha Bagyia, Gesar was Dongzhu Zarbao, the eldest of the 15 sons of Heavenly King Baifan. He was considered to be the reincarnation of Master Padmasambhava, an Indian monk who spread Buddhism in Tibet. In the face of rampant demons, Gesar decided to lift sufferers out of the abyss of bitterness.
   Legend has it that Gesar was born on a Saturday in a yak hair tent in Jisuya. People in that part of the world still tell stories about his birth. However, there are also those who say he was born by the Mamaoke Qu River to the south of the Bayankala Mountains, in the border area of Yushu and Garze. People there describe his birthplace in this way: It is to the left of a cypress tree, a place resembling the tail of a horse; it is located to the left of a bowl-like fountain; and it lies beneath of a rock that looks like an arrow.
   Believe it or not, there was a gushing fountain in the area where Gesar recited sutras. Amazed by its crystal clear fountain water, we tried to have a taste but the Living Buddha there refused to let us do so, explaining the fountain would be contaminated and therefore become dry.
   There is a surprising coincidence with regard to what people say and what the epic describes concerning the birthplace of Gesar. It lies at the confluence of two rivers, where Gesar's mother put up her tent. It lies amid the ruins of the Sutra Hall of King Gesar. Behind the Sutra Hall is a rock that looks like an arrow with grasslands flanking the rock looking like an unfolded felt.
SUTRA HALL OF KING GESAR.    Legend has it that the temple was built during the reign of Emperor Daoguang of the Qing Dynasty (618-907). But some insisted that it was built during the Song Dynasty by Ling Gesgyia, offspring of Wonbo Nganu Huasang, one of the four major headmen in the Ling area. Legend has it that Ling Gesgyia was one of the four bravest generals of King Gesar.
   As a matter of fact, the temple was the family temple of the Headman of Ling Cang. And this found its way into the Family Record of Mobudong Tribe and that of Headman Ling Cang.
Before the peaceful liberation of Tibet in 1951, the temple housed Gesar's ivory seal, the family record of Gesar's bailiff Nganyichageng, arrows used by General Nyiancha Ngadain, armor used by Gesar and his weapons, relics belonging to the father-in-law of Gesar, the statue of Gesar's horse, and clay figurines of Dainma, Xinba and Zhumao. In the temple were also frescoes depicting 30 generals of the State of Ling under Gesar's rule, 80 heroes who distinguished themselves during the expeditionary war, 13 Buddhist guardians, and 18 concubines of Gesar. Other frescoes depict how Gesar fought his enemies.
   The temple was damaged during the chaotic "cultural revolution" (1966-1976). In 1987, the government of Dege County earmarked some 30,000 Yuan to repair it. After that, the Living Buddha Bagyia managed to raise money for further renovation into the Sutra Hall of King Gesar, which was consecrated on August 8, 1999. And the Living Buddha himself is not its abbot.
The Sutra Hall enshrines the sculpture of King Gesar. Behind him are statues of 80 heroes; in front stand his generals, concubines and beauties. During our visit to the Sutra Hall, the Living Buddha Gagyia introduced us to these generals.
STUDY OF KING GESAR.    "His birthplace lay in Lhagyixiong, where the three rivers-Yellow, Langcangjiang and Jinshajiang-met. It was to the left of the Dege Castle....with a mirror-like lake. In the area where the three rivers met is a square rocky mountain. In the center is a lawn where the parents of Gesar put up a tent," Somba explained, adding that the place was called "Ghinyi Maguanqi."
   Ren Naiqiang is an accomplished Tibetologist. He is also gifted in studying King Gesar. In the 17th year of the Republic of China (1912-1949), he made a survey in the Kham area. Based on this survey, he came to the conclusion:
   "The present-day area under Headman Ling Cang in the Yarlung River Valley was called Xiongba. Gesar was born in the Chacha Temple. After his birth, the area thrived with grass and flowers all the year round. The temple houses his weapons and an ivory seal. Two resident monks recite sutras there. Some of his belongings were moved by a magician lama to Xiangdana, Xiangqian County in Qinghai Province."
   Li Ming lived in the Kham area for years. In the 30th year of the Republic of China, he went to Dege for a survey. After that he studied Buddhist doctrines in the Zuqing Temple in Dege.
   "Gesar was born in area east of Shiqu on the western bank of the Yarlung River. It was called Xiongba and was still under the jurisdiction of Headman Ling Cang who built a temple as family temple. Legend has it that grass thrived in the area where Gesar was born. An altar was built in present-day temple, which collects Gesar's weapons and an ivory seal. Most of Gesar's belongings were moved by a lama with magic powers to Xiangdana in Xiangqian, also called Lungqing."
RELICS OF KING GESAR. Prints on the Rock: About two km away from the Sutra Hall of King Gesar is a large rock bearing the prints of the bottom of a boy and his legs. Legend has it that Gesar, possessing magic power, conquered three demon birds when he was only a three-year-old boy. This found its way into the Birth of the Hero in King Gesar.
Fountain. To the left of the Sutra Hall of King Gesar is a fountain that gushes out crystal clear water. This found its way into the Birth of the Hero in King Gesar.
   Gege Mountain. In the Tamranma Mountain in Gyike, Shiqu County of Garze Prefecture, is a mountain mouth called Gege in Tibetan. Legend has it that the uncle of Gesar tried to murder the boy through a sorcerer. Upon learning the news, Gesar fought the sorcerer. The latter fled to the mountains, and, when he saw Gesar in distance, he uttered "Ge Ge". From then on, the mountain mouth was so called and a rock there resembles the image of the sorcerer.
   There are other places allegedly related to King Gesar. They include an ancient castle, supposedly built during the period of King Gesar. Some of the temples there contain armor used by the king, but this has not been confirmed as fact.
CONCLUSION.    With Ozhu as his base, Gesar fought in present-day Golog, Yushuo, Garze, Xinlong, Daofu, Seda, Luohuo, Aba and Qamdo. His 30 generals were given land to rule in Baiyu, Dengke, Shiqu, Golog, Yushu and Qamdo.
   During his twilight years, Gesar decided to return home from Qamdo. When he reached Dengke, his horse was startled by a dog, and the king fell down and was killed. His offspring took over his reign and, during the Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties and the period of the Republic of China, they were known as Headman Ling Cang.